Evidence suggests that some Norse communities had latrines near their longhouses, as mentioned in Viking sagas. These latrines were often communal and placed away from heavily populated areas. In one discovery at Stöng, a privy included trenches to carry waste outdoors. Researchers in Denmark found a 1,000-year-old latrine containing parasites carried by humans and animals, which contributed to genetic adaptations in modern descendants, possibly leading to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Norse men and women kept various animals, each with practical purposes. Falcons were for hunting, dogs herded and hunted, horses were versatile, and cats controlled rodents. Dogs, in particular, were cherished companions, believed to join warriors in Valhalla. The Norsk elghund, or Norse elkhound, remains esteemed in Norway. Additionally, Norse people reportedly domesticated bears, including polar and brown bears, with strict laws governing their ownership to prevent damage.

According to their laws:

“If a man has a tame white bear, then he is to handle it in the same way as a dog and similarly pay for any damage it does. A bear has no immunity in respect of injuries done to it if it harms people.”

Scandinavian explorers established L’Anse aux Meadows on Newfoundland around 1000 CE, the oldest European settlement in North America. It featured workshops and dwellings, with evidence of woodworking and iron production. Scholars debate why the Vikings didn’t stay, citing harsh weather, declining resources, and conflicts with indigenous groups. Viking encounters with Native Americans are recounted in sagas like the Saga of the Greenlanders, indicating tensions. Some suggest the Vikings used the settlement for seasonal exploration rather than permanent habitation. Regardless, factors like climate change and conflicts likely influenced their departure from North America.

Horizontal filing marks on Viking skulls suggest tooth-filing as a symbol of social status. Additional crescent-shaped markings and evidence of teeth dyed or painted are found. Researcher Caroline Arcini suggests these lines were skillfully made, likely by someone other than the individuals themselves, indicating social significance. Vikings’ attention to hygiene is noted. William Fitzhugh of the Smithsonian proposes that filled grooves enhanced Viking warriors’ fearsome appearance, possibly intimidating Christian monks and villagers.

Contrary to stereotypes, Vikings were a diverse group in appearance. Some used lye soap to bleach their hair blond and kill lice, showing concern for grooming. A 13th-century chronicle describes their daily hair care and bathing habits. Vikings sported a distinctive hairstyle—long in the front and short or shaved at the back. Both men and women likely styled their hair similarly. Facial hair was common, kept neat with grooming tools like razors and combs.

In Norse literature, the Blood Eagle is described as a possible ritualistic execution, possibly a sacrifice to Odin, though its historical accuracy is debated by historians. This brutal form of punishment, involving carving an eagle shape on the victim’s back, pulling back the skin, and detaching the ribs from the spine, was likely reserved for dishonorable individuals or enemies. Some variations suggest a less invasive method, with an eagle carved on the victim’s body, and salt rubbed on the flesh for added pain.

The horned helmets commonly associated with Vikings were likely not worn by Viking warriors, deemed impractical for combat. The link between Vikings and these helmets likely originated in the 19th century with costume designer Carl Emil Doepler, who created costumes for Richard Wagner’s Norse-themed operas, drawing inspiration from Greco-Roman artwork and ceremonial helmets worn by Germanic priests.

While funerals involving burning ships did occur, they weren’t conducted at sea as often depicted. Instead, important Vikings were cremated on ships surrounded by grave goods, but the ships were burned on land and buried, a practice confirmed by archaeological discoveries.

Vikings were not only raiders but also traders with extensive networks reaching North America and the Middle East. They encountered indigenous populations and took prisoners, often integrating them into servitude as thralls, the lowest social rank.

Viking slavery served various purposes, including the need for women and labor. They participated in a Mediterranean slave trade network, trading goods like narwhal tusks sold as unicorn horns.

The narwhal tusks were highly valued due to the medieval fascination with unicorns, believed to be real creatures.

According to Nordic legends, berserkers were Viking warriors known for their ferocity in battle. They fought without clothing, exhibiting wild ruthlessness, possibly under the influence of hallucinogenic substances. Scholars theorize they may have used Amanita muscaria mushrooms or henbane, a toxic plant known for inducing hallucinations and used in beer. Ethnobotanist Karsten Fatur suggests henbane is more likely to induce the berserker rage state than Amanita mushrooms.

Fish, including herring and dried cod, was a key part of the Viking diet, preserved through smoking, salting, and drying. Meat, from reindeer, elk, and bear, as well as farm animals like horses, cows, and pigs, was boiled in cauldrons or pits for large feasts. The resulting stew, called skause, was a staple, continuously simmering and enriched with vegetables and meat over time. Cooking meat on a spit was less common.

Fish, including herring and dried cod, was a key part of the Viking diet, preserved through smoking, salting, and drying. Meat, from reindeer, elk, and bear, as well as farm animals like horses, cows, and pigs, was boiled in cauldrons or pits for large feasts. The resulting stew, called skause, was a staple, continuously simmering and enriched with vegetables and meat over time. Cooking meat on a spit was less common.

Vikings navigated the open seas with remarkable precision without modern compasses, relying on landmarks, stars, the sun, and even the color of the ocean to guide them. They used a sun compass to determine direction and a tool called a “sunstone” to locate the sun’s position on cloudy days. Their deep understanding of nature and the sea allowed them to reach far-off lands, including Greenland and North America, centuries before other Europeans.

In Viking society, women enjoyed rights that were unusually progressive for the era. They could own property, request a divorce, and reclaim their dowries if the marriage ended. Women also played crucial roles in managing farms and family businesses, highlighting their importance in both the domestic and economic spheres of Norse life.

Runestones were large stones inscribed with runes, used primarily as memorials to the dead. These stones serve as important historical documents today, offering insights into the language, society, and travels of the Viking Age. They were often elaborately decorated with carvings and stood as enduring symbols of honor and remembrance.

The Varangian Guard was an elite unit of the Byzantine army from the 10th to the 14th centuries, composed primarily of Vikings. These fearsome warriors were renowned for their loyalty and skill in battle, serving as the personal bodyguard of the Byzantine Emperors. Their presence in Constantinople is a testament to the Vikings’ wide-reaching influence across Europe and Asia.

Viking ships were marvels of naval engineering, designed for speed, agility, and versatility. Their longships, with shallow drafts and symmetrical bows and sterns, could navigate both open seas and shallow rivers. This technological innovation enabled Vikings to raid, trade, and explore across vast distances, from the coasts of North America to the rivers of Russia and beyond.

The Viking legal system was surprisingly sophisticated, centered around the Thing, a general assembly where free men could settle disputes, make laws, and make decisions on community matters. These assemblies underscored the democratic aspects of Viking society, where the rule of law and communal agreement were key.

The Viking influence on the English language is profound, with words like “sky,” “window,” and “knife” having Old Norse roots. This linguistic legacy is a result of the Norsemen’s extensive contact with Anglo-Saxon England, both through raids and settlements, highlighting the cultural and social exchange between the two peoples.

Vikings established and developed significant urban centers, such as Birka in Sweden and Hedeby in Denmark, which were important trade hubs. These towns were well-organized, with planned streets, marketplaces, and defensive structures, indicating a high level of urban development and economic complexity in Viking society.

The widespread use of runestones across Scandinavia suggests a higher level of literacy than previously thought. The inscriptions, ranging from memorial tributes to claims of property and accomplishments, indicate that the ability to read and write runes was not restricted to a literate elite but was a more common skill among the Vikings.

Contrary to the stereotype of the dirty barbarian, Vikings placed a high value on cleanliness and personal grooming. Archaeological finds include tweezers, razors, combs, and ear cleaners made from antlers and bones. Bathing at least once a week was common, significantly more frequently than in many other parts of medieval Europe.

Viking art is characterized by its distinctive styles, such as the Borre, Jelling, Mammen, Ringerike, and Urnes, reflecting a rich tradition of craftsmanship and decoration. This art often adorned weapons, jewelry, and runestones, featuring intricate animal designs and interlacing patterns that symbolize the Vikings’ beliefs and values.

Viking burial practices varied widely, including ship burials, cremations, and mound burials, reflecting a complex view of the afterlife. These practices were often elaborate, intended to equip the deceased for the journey to the afterlife, with grave goods ranging from weapons and jewelry to ships and animals.

Vikings left a significant impact on European history through their raids, trade, and settlements. They established duchies and kingdoms, integrated into local societies, and influenced the political landscape of medieval Europe. Their presence accelerated the formation of centralized states in England, France, and Russia.

Norse mythology, with its pantheon of gods and heroes, played a central role in Viking religious practices. Rituals and sacrifices to gods like Odin, Thor, and Freyja were important for ensuring success in battle, fertility, and prosperity. This mythology reflects the Vikings’ deep connection with nature and the harsh realities of their world.

Vikings were not just raiders but also explorers who ventured beyond their homelands in search of trade, land, and new opportunities. Their voyages took them to the far reaches of the known world, from the Mediterranean to the North Atlantic, and even to the shores of North America, hundreds of years before Columbus.

Runes were not just an alphabet but were also believed to have magical properties. Vikings used runes for protection, to ensure success in battle, and to foretell the future. This belief in the power of runes reflects the Vikings’ deep spirituality and their belief in the unseen forces of the world.

Despite their reputation as raiders, most Vikings were farmers, relying on agriculture and animal husbandry for survival. They cultivated crops like barley, oats, and rye and raised animals such as cattle, pigs, and sheep, which played a crucial role in their economy and diet.

The Viking diet was varied, consisting of meat, fish, vegetables, and fruits. They preserved food through smoking, drying, and pickling to survive the harsh winters. This diet, rich in protein and nutrients, supported the Vikings’ physically demanding lifestyle.

Vikings, known as Varangians in the East, played a key role in the founding of the Kievan Rus’, the precursor to modern Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus. They established trade routes along the rivers, integrating into Slavic society, and laying the foundations for the Russian state.

Viking weaponry and armor were both practical and symbolic, reflecting the wearer’s status and skill in battle. Craftsmen produced swords, axes, spears, and shields, as well as protective gear like helmets and mail armor. These items were not only functional but also often beautifully decorated, showcasing the Vikings’ craftsmanship and aesthetic sensibilities.